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A Concise History of Education of Teachers, of Teacher Training and Teaching

Posted in Teacher Training, Teachers | March 6th, 2010

A Concise History of Education of Teachers, of Teacher Training and Teaching

Western history of teacher training, education history, teaching theories, education of teachers, modern history od education, began in early 18th century Germany: teaching seminaries educating teachers were the first formal teacher training in Western history of education and teaching.

(History of education had 2nd century-BC Greek Spartan free public education, Athenian Academy until age 18 and higher Academy and Lyceum; Roman private formal schooling in tiers; China’s 1st century-BC administrator examinations; 1st century Jewish informal Cul’ Tura general education; Islam’s 9th century universities [madrasahs]; 16th century Aztec mandatory teen education; 18th century Russian nation-wide education, Poland’s Education Ministry, Chez ‘teacher of nations’ Comenius’s ‘Didactica Magna’ on universal education [compulsory, certified teachers, tests]; leading later Western history of education –17th century Scotland’s free education, 18th’s Norway’s mandatory literacy and New Zealand’s standard education, 21st’s Europe’s Bologna process equalising educational qualifications.)

Teacher education and training, first teacher training college in French history of education and history of teaching, Jean Babtiste de la Salle’s 18th century Brothers of the Christian schools, had non-clerical male teachers teaching poor and middle class children. Based on Greek philosophers’ philosophy of education and teaching, re-introduced by Islam, spirituality was not its only reason, basis of education. Teacher education and training had been clerical –this was Western history of education’s first secular teacher training college.

This philosophy of education changed educational history’s attitude to education. It reformed education, educational theory, learning, enabled further education reforms and educational theories of teaching in history of education. With education reforms in education history, educational theory of teacher education required of teachers an understanding of the human mind and the theory of education, knowledge of sciences and arts, principles and educational methods of teaching. This need in educational history for a teaching method, method of education, necessitated theories of education -in Western history of education educational theories on teacher education interested educators.

These educational philosophies and theories of education on teacher education became the norm in Western history of education, teacher training establishments first Normal Schools in the history of education and training of teachers.

Teacher education progressed educational history: in history of education and history of teaching the system of education required and enabled knowledge, in-service experience, certification for teachers, continuing professional development for teachers in teaching. This non-uniform system of teacher education and training enabled teachers, while teaching, at teacher seminars to refresh and increase their knowledge of theory of education and method of teaching -exchanging ideas among teachers.

Napoleon, in history of education and teacher training, uniformed professional teaching. Adopting Germany’s teacher seminars, in French history of education and in Western history of education and training of teachers, established the first uniform teacher education system.

Neither the USA’s educational history nor British history of education did in educational philosophies, systems of education, include formal teacher education and training, although Elizabeth-I had introduced teachers’ moral teaching fitness certification in teacher education .

In England’s history of education and teaching, in early 19th century Joseph Lancaster and Andrew Bell founded the Lancastarian teaching method of teacher training: in a monitorial system of teacher education and training senior students (‘monitors’) receiving teaching from tutors were teaching junior students, acting as teachers.

In Scotland’s history of education and teaching, 17th century free education compulsory in late 19th, Germany’s teacher education and training influenced David Stowe’s founding the Glasgow Normal Seminary for teachers.

Progress in teaching and teacher training began with Horace Mann’s Massachusetts Normal Schools in the USA’s educational history, and in Britain’s history of education by the churches’ and voluntary organisations’ teacher training colleges and teaching the colonials.

In philosophies of education arguments followed on teacher education in educational history: should persons of lower English social class attend teacher training colleges and give teaching to children of higher social class!? Might teachers’ teaching not influence young French minds with liberal ideas?!

(Japan’s educational philosophy [perhaps influencing the USA's educational philosophy, history of education and teaching] emphasised patriotic teacher education and teaching.)

In Europe’s history of teacher education and training, Rosencrantz’s 19th century ‘Philosophy of Education’ emphasised ‘philosophical and psychological data’; this, resembling Islam’s university faculties, developed into separate teaching disciplines.

In Sweden’s history of education and teaching, Pestalozzi furthered the progress of systems of education, advocating formal teacher training colleges.

(Pestalozzi, except theologically, was self-educated, did not leave a written account of teaching and of teacher training colleges; his place in the history of education and teaching is deducible in outline from his various writings, loving sincere deeds, the example he set.)

Germany’s Froebel, and Alexander Bain’s ‘Education as a Science’, favoured education of teachers through teacher training colleges; teacher education adopted what philosophies of education in Western educational history and teaching had lacked -Herbart’s pedagogical emphasis in teaching on five formal steps: preparation, presentation, comparison, generalisation, application.

Germany’s teacher education and training became the basis of developments in the history of education and teacher training; Derwent Coleridge and James Kay Shuttleworth in Britain, Mann in the USA broadly agreed: teacher education and training should emphasise techniques of teaching -”not only the subjects of instructions, but also the method of teaching”.

Jules Ferry laws’ compulsory education established teacher education and training in late 19th century French history of education: teacher education and training, by law, should be through formal teacher training colleges.

English speaking countries’ history of education and teaching, formal teacher education and training, began with the University of Edinburgh’s creating a chair in education, with St. Andrews; in the USA’s history of education, e.g., Henry Bernard, Nicholas Murray Butler, followed.

In Western history of education, England’s progress involved pedagogy and Herbart Sepencer’s teaching techniques in teacher education and training, the USA’s e.g., Francis W. Parker’s, studying Germany’s pedagogical teacher education developments.

In the USA’s history of education and teaching the Darwinian hypothesis (as before later scientific evaluation) influenced John Dewey at the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools; taking into account from other disciplines what were considered relevant in teaching to child development, Brown University founded an education department.

(The La Salle College in Philadelphia, had been teaching education.)

New York’s Teachers College, founded 1888, was incorporated into the Columbia University, 1893, establishing its teacher training college, announcing: “The purpose of the Teacher Training College is to afford opportunity, both theoretical and practical, for the training of teachers, of both sexes, for kindergartens and elementary schools and secondary schools, of principals, supervisors, and superintendents of schools, and of specialists in various branches of school work, involving normal schools and colleges” -it became the basis, in Western history of education and teaching, of teacher education and training and Teacher Colleges.

(The USA’s educational history experts’ versions vary on it history of education.)

In most of British Commonwealth’s history of education and system of teacher training, entry into teacher training came to require senior secondary education at High School level or British Grammar School education with national Matriculation or Ordinary and Advanced General Certificate of Education (GCE) examinations –or equivalent.

In Europe’s history of education and teacher training, education with similar Gymnasium(/Abitur) or General Lycè e Diploma, or equivalent education, became professional teacher education and training entry qualification.

(In British history of education, until early 20th century, holders of those qualifications, by selection examination, could become temporary teachers. Oxbridge graduates could register ‘master’ and be syndicated teachers. Other universities’ graduates, to become teachers, attended teacher training colleges [if Bachelor of Education, second year teacher training of a teacher training college].)

In British Commonwealth’s history of education greater importance was attached to professionalism in teacher education and training: academic qualifications did not suffice for teaching; teacher examinations required specific periods of specifically professional study in teaching. Professional teaching involved two years’ professional study in teaching and additional in-house teacher training before professional teacher status. Professional teachers could, with another educational year at the teacher training college, specialise in a subject, e.g., geography or history (in farming colonies, e.g., Cyprus where Agriculture became a secondary school examination subject, with one or two more educational years’ through the Teacher Training College’s Rural Agricultural School). Science graduates without professional teaching training and education qualified for permanent teaching after a year’s classroom teaching experience approved by professionally qualified headmasters, as teachers of their subjects. Teachers were expected to attend teachers’ seminars as continuing professional development.

While professional qualifications are regarded for professional reasons equivalent to doctorates in their counterparts and what qualify for teaching, teacher education and training (school age becoming lower and years less, to enable maturer teachers and teaching), for professional teaching knowledge and skills acquired at teacher training colleges, favoured bachelor degrees with teaching content emphasising skills over theory and, e.g., the USA’s academic ‘first professional degree’ –more for research than professional practice.

(British history of education desired teaching with Post-graduate Certificate in Education [PGCE] -for English state school teaching Qualified Teacher Status [QTS] skills test, and [also if Bachelor of Education] successfully completing an induction year [in Scotland two] in school teaching as Newly Qualified Teacher [NQT], with continuing professional development; alternatively a specific teaching degree or on-the-job teacher training. Teachers trained at Teacher Training Colleges in [former] colonies –and similarly trained teachers with GCSE [grade C] or equivalent in English and Mathematics [for primary school teaching, also Physics] enjoy Qualified Teacher Status.)

(Canada’s provinces or schools certify teachers; Australia requires none for federally funded private schools; France’s is college/bachelor and Teacher Institute [master’s -2010].)

{In the USA’s history of education, until 1960s, one year’s teacher training college education was required for teacher certification. In 1984 an alternate teaching route was introduced: bachelor’s with teaching preparation and within a specified number of years completing a teaching or content based master’s. (Some universities award [with summer study] bachelor degrees in two years, some two bachelor degrees simultaneously [e.g., with two arts and two science majors both BA Philosophy and BS ChE Chemical Engineering]; the doctoral JD is pre-requisite to master’s LL.M which not all tenured professors need posses.) The ‘Master of Professional Studies’ (MPS) First Professional Degree is academic, not professional. Many states require of teachers, for permanent teaching, examinations in pedagogy and a content area or general knowledge accredited by many private associations’ varying standards; in early 21st century Marlboro-Carolina 20% of teachers had no certification.}

In educational history post general education having been academic for career advancement and scholarly activity or research, or professional for actual practice in the filed, the professional qualification is normally the terminating qualification; in professional teaching, advanced professional degrees enabling specialised teaching, e.g., at universities, are not regarded as part of professional teacher education and training for general education teaching; the USA’s main master’s area is for Ed.D or Ph.D. –research.)

In European history of education, teaching related educational leadership gained importance at the end of 20th century. Desiring the benefits of learnable leadership skills and inherent personal leadership qualities, teachers’ educational leadership skills in teaching leadership are remunerated according to national teacher pay scales.

The USA’s educational leadership teachers’ pay is non-uniform; educational leadership skills standards vary. Graduate educational leadership programs are in, e.g., community issues and educational law. Private Teacher Advancement Programmes (TAP) subscribed by some schools encourage teachers in administrative or teaching development: a teacher prepares an individual growth plan (IGP) with an educational goal or teaching activity, or a cluster group of teachers identify a student learning need, becoming ‘mentor’ or ‘master teacher’/‘teacher of teachers’.

As others’, USA’s teacher training colleges’ comparable teaching qualifications enjoy international regard.

In their history of education, having less aspired to ‘practical’ general education as in the USA and 21st century Britain, most British Commonwealth and European teaching institutions almost uniformly value widely academic general education as culture not acquirable in post general education (e.g., an opposition leader to a Prime Minister [both lawyers] “I as a Grammar School boy” [would not take ‘that’ from him who was not]) and Britain’s suggestion to equate practical skills certificates with general academic qualifications was criticised.

(Early 21st century British educational history saw [university or equivalent mandatory student grants becoming loans, unemployment necessitating longer and more courses, foreigners scoring higher in English] no increase since late 20th in literacy.)

(In the USA’s history of education, with 20% adult functional illiteracy, as the educationists’ concerns grew, the educationalists considered Europe’s baccalaureate system of education; with growing public interest in education, at the end of 20th century a state appointed three generals to improve the standards of teaching and education and at the beginning of 21st century a general was appointed to federally improve teaching and educational standards.)

In educational history interest in the teaching profession has been based on the status of teachers. Regard for teachers in late 20th century was highest in Russia where teachers enjoyed better employment terms than elsewhere.

(In Britain’s history of education, 1980s’ miss-projection of numbers of teachers needed necessitated engaging science graduates without teaching qualifications as teachers; but a status was enjoyed by teachers of regard as in Europe, and, about the end of 20th century, knighthood for long serving teachers was suggested –due to controversy over peerages it did not materialise. At the beginning of 21st century reducing undergraduate degrees to two years with vocational content was considered, with master’s for teachers -also non-major professional qualifications being above undergraduate degrees in National Vocational Qualifications; but Teachers’ status was regarded to have been equated for economical reasons to classroom assistants’ socially criticised for taking classes without professional teacher education and training.])

In the USA’s history of education, teaching has hailed a form of essentialism in education, with a culture of practicality and model citizenry, emphasising respect for authority (advocated also for 21st century British education); with no general minimum standard in teacher training and education, some states not recognising the teaching qualifications of some others, teachers and teaching appear officially to enjoy no higher regard then Bernard Shaw’s remark (about writers) “Those who can, do; those who can not, teach”.

(In the USA, e.g., some teachers paid only term time having to seek vacation work, teaching and teachers generally are regarded to have enjoyed less good terms and conditions than elsewhere in proportion to social regard and public resources.)

The growth of interest in culture and education in Western history of teaching has been seen in the European Union, e.g., in Cyprus with the popularisation of education in mid. 20th century -reportedly with highest percentage of university graduates by 21st.

In Western educational reforms spiritual values in education are protected by teaching religious studies in schools in American secularism (protection of religion from political influence) and by the religious affiliations of many universities; in European secularism (protecting against one’s formal dominance of the other), often with a state religion enshrined in the constitution, this is ensured by, e.g., Britain’s Education Acts’ requirement in compulsory education of religious worship by pupils at least once a month and, while British universities are not formally religiously affiliated, the availability of chapels and chaplains to students at universities.

While preferences in education (e.g., the pedagogy based Steiner-Waldorf education for creating free moral and integrated individuals -its teachers’ and schools’ say on defining the curricula by some disagreed with, or Montessori’s pre-school and elementary school child’s self directed activities with auto-didactic equipment -regarded by some as risking raising obedient automatons), and emphasis (be it practical skills or Emerson’s ‘thinking man’), have all had praise and criticism in the history of education and teaching and arguments continue on pragmatism and creation -v- evolution, generally Socrates’s argument that the rightly trained mind turns toward virtue carries weight in most educational systems. Basically, in every history of education, an important aim of education and the societies’ all time expectations have been on the lines of these verses (by the Cypriot teacher, the late Orhan Seyfi Ari):

” ‘I was an ape’ you say -or amphibian?
And now?! Are you not now.. ‘man’!? ”

The cultural values balance have been more reflected in the education and training of teachers in Western history of education and teaching and the status of teachers in Europe mostly in Spain, Italy and France where, without much disregard to spiritual values, school teachers’ political and ideological affiliations have been the norm in professional teaching.

The web site may interest on teacher the late Orhan Seyfi Ari at orhanseyfiari.com

Tags: History of Education, Teacher Training, Teachers, Teaching

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Womens Higher Education in India

Posted in Education, Womens education | February 6th, 2010

Inducement of social change as one of the fundamental functions of education has been spelt out in the report of the Indian Education Commission (1964-66) thus:

“The realization of the country’s aspirations involves changes in the knowledge, skills and values of the people as a whole. If this ‘change in a grand scale’ is to be achieved without a violent revolution there is one and only instrument that can be used – Education”.

EDUCATION :-

Education is the nourishment of the mind with knowledge this is practiced purposefully and productively.

Education disciplines the mind, sharpens the intellect and refines the spirit. It shapes and polishes a rough unknown diamond into a multifaceted kohinoor sparkling with scintillating brilliance. Its the development of integrated personality that unfolds itself to the highest wisdom. Its a continuous process.

The philosopher President Dr.Radhakrishnan (1948) said, “There cannot be educated people without educated women. If general education has to be limited to men or women, that opportunity should be given to women from them it would most surely be passed on to the next generation”.

HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN :-

Higher education is defined as the education attained after the completion of 12 years of schooling. Higher education for women has gained a wider role and responsibility all over the world. Today, in the 21st century, we cannot afford to ignore the importance of higher education for women any longer. The reason for its need and urgency is that there is no biological difference in the systems of males and females. Unfortunately, this important task of higher education of women has remain neglected for centuries. Need for higher education among women assumes all the more importance or the 3rd world countries, where colonialism has remained a great force hindering education for the general masses and for the women in particular.

OBJECTIVES OF HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMEN:-

To provide society with competent men and women trained in agriculture, arts, medicine, science and technology and various other professions, who will also be cultivated individuals in built with a sense of social purpose.

To strive to promote equality an social justice and to reduce social and cultural differences through diffusion of education.

NEED FOR HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMEN : MALE AND FEMALE :-

Higher Education may also be viewed in terms of the needs of its consumers. The term consumer is very wide and heterogeneous. It includes young and old of both sexes. Theoretically the need for Higher Education for both males and females is the same. But its sometime argued that males and females are different in their social and cultural needs.

The basic argument which is given for women Higher Education is not that Higher Education for women is different from that of men. Our main thrust is that in the field of Higher Education, women should also be equal partners. Our past experience shows that so far Higher Education has remained restricted only to men. It should now widen its horizon and include women also. The commission on the Higher Education for women, University of Madras in 1979 rightly observed: “for Women and men college education is necessary for character formation, ability to earn, creative self expression and personal development”.

MAIN FACTORS INFLUENCING WOMEN’S SUCCESS / FAILURE IN COMPLETING HIGHER EDUCATION :-

Success :

a) Women are strongly motivated to succeed in the education stream.

b) The merit basis of the education system permits females to excel.

c) Prejudice against women’s education has been reduced. Higher Education has come to be considered equivalent to a bride’s “dowry”.

d) Women’s universities promote women’s Higher Education.

e) Women’s expectations for education based employment are high.

f) Some Higher Education courses provide scholarship facilities for women.

g) Female students have been provided with residential facilities in some areas.

Failure :

a) Female students have difficulties in access to transport facilities in general.

b) Sexual harassment as well as occasional student violence hinder female students completion of higher education.

c) Marriage in many cases leads to early withdraw.

d) Gender stereotyping inhibits completion of studies.

e) Financial constraints can cause withdrawal from the education stream.

f) Part-time work to earn living interferes with studies.

SIGNIFICANCE OF PRESENT STUDY :-

The objective of the Indian Society as has been laid down in the constitution is to achieve a democratic, socialistic and egalitarian society. In such a society women are supposed to perform their roles at par with men. Their status structurally needs to be equal with men.

Broadly speaking, knowledge which is imparted through Higher Education provides skills to its practitioners. Our understanding is that by acquiring skills the women raise their status in comparison with men and also the status of the group to which they belong.

In order to understand the status of women, or for that matter to understand any social issues, it is necessary to combine at least 3 perspectives viz. the perspective from policy, the perspective from statistics and the perspective from culture.

· The present study is aimed at finding the various reasons for women seeking entry into higher education.

· It aims at looking at the reasons for seeking entry into higher education by women from the perspective of men, teachers, parents and the women themselves.

· It bring about an awareness among women as to the various avenues open to them in Higher Education and thus mark the beginning of a major process of empowering women.

· To find out the problems hindering the pursuit of Higher Education by women.

· Make suggestions for finding solutions to the above problems in a rational and free manner.

· To suggest ways of enhancing women’s entry into colleges, including professional course.

· To explore areas of Higher Education where women have not yet stepped in or are a monopoly of men.

· To suggest suitable measures to make higher education for women universal i.e. free of cost, time and distance effective.

PROMOTING HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMEN

The social context of educational policy has to be improved.

Family and personal counseling at the secondary education stage can be provided.

Higher education can be made skill oriented.

Nontraditional curricula for women can be established.

Recent declines in state support for non-traditional higher education has to be reversed.

Institutions can be made physically accessible i.e. Locate them near the potential clientele, improve transport system etc.

Higher Education Institutions have to be made more women-friendly i.e. Physical Changes, curricula changes, social changes.

Women’s representation on institutions decision-making bodies can be increased.

Equal opportunity commissions for higher education institutions should be established.

The number of women teachers in co-educational institutions of higher education should be increased.

Stipends, Scholarships and fellowships can be linked to affirmative action programmes.

Women need to be recruited into administrative training programmes for institutions of higher education.

A large role for women’s study centres can be provided.

Institutions of higher education should provide placement services.

Barriers to women’s career entry should be removed, example: employers should be sensitized to the value of flexitime, day-care centres etc.

Sexual harassment in the educational environment should be addressed.

A large number of female secondary education graduates usually are not able to enter university. To accommodate that population it would be benefited to strengthen the role of vocational training institutions. Post secondary vocational training institutions should take action to promote entry of women into vocational training lines traditionally considered male preserves.

Affirmative action quotas has to be provided to promote women’s admission into higher institutions, where such quotas exist, should be reviewed periodically to ensure their continuing relevance.

Where quotas are provides for specific disadvantaged groups like disabled persons, people from remote or rural areas, members of indigenous minorities, a minimum share should be reserved for female members of those groups.

Distance education and open learning institutions and techniques should be promoted, particularly to extend higher education opportunities to women in rural and remote areas, which will take into account their needs.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH :-

The present study is limited only to women students seeking higher education up to undergraduate level in a few professional and non-professional colleges of Chennai city. The following suggestions are given for further investigation.

1. A similar study may be conducted among the postgraduate level or research level students.

2. A similar study may be undertaken throughout Tamil Nadu State.

3. A comparative study of factors influencing entry of women in higher education can be made between a developing and developed country.

4. A similar study may be attempted for various issues relating higher education of women.

About the Author

S. Bharathi M.A., M.Ed.,M.Phil.,

Headmistress ( Ph.D. Scholar)

DDV Higher Secondary School,

Ramanathapuram-623504

TamilNadu.

My contact No : 09443125668 / 04567 229407/ 04567 221758

(ArticlesBase SC #756311)

Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/ – Womens Higher Education in India

Tags: Education, Womens education

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Introduction to Home Schooling

Posted in Home Schooling | December 6th, 2009

Home schooling
is not easy and most parents that do home schooling will admit to you that it is a lot tougher. It is for this reason that many parents who do home schooling get together with home schooling groups, which does make it easier. When home schooling groups get together they help all the parents do better with the home schooling. However, it is not easy to get together with all the parents and therefore the home schooling groups must do public relations and develop community goodwill.

If you live in an area that doesn’t have a strong home schooling presence, you may need to develop your own home schooling curriculums. Fortunately, there are a lot of books and resources on the subject. Check your local library as a starting point. You also may find general home schooling curriculums online. Once you find a home schooling curriculum to work with, you will need to figure out how much leeway you have with it. One of the advantages of home schooling is you can allow your children to gravitate toward subjects that interest them.

There are many ways you can home school online. Some traditional high schools offer online programs. An advantage to home schooling online in this manner is that a local school system is available to make sure your child is receiving the proper testing and studying the proper subjects. They usually supply a curriculum and have a system of checks and balances to make sure your children are studying required subjects. Home schooling lets your children learn about things that interest them, but it doesn’t mean they should ignore other skills.

Tips On Home Schooling

Let’s face it but you have to realize that during the past few years home schooling has become increasingly popular. This is in addition to the more accepted arguments for or against home schooling. The reasons behind many families choosing to homeschool are many. It has to be remembered that before public schooling was considered the norm that home schooling was. Closer family relationships have also been found to be a result of home schooling.

Home schooling is legal in the United States, even if there have been and still are many controversies on the issue of whether or not the child is benefiting from this procedure; this issue if still being debated and even a banning of this practice may be applied if enough evidence is found that children do not actually benefit from it.

Home Schooling Disadvantages

Many parents eager to begin home schooling their children have though long and hard about the benefits home schooling will bring to their children. But unfortunately they often fail to consider the home schooling disadvantages which can also play a big part in their children’s academic and social development. While parents may love the idea of allowing their kids to learn at their own pace without being pressured to keep up or labeled “dummies” if they need to spend more time than most of their classmates in mastering a subject, one of the home schooling disadvantages which they may not be factoring into their home schooling decision is whether or not their skills as teachers are up to helping their kids learn difficult material.

Expertise in each subject area and the art of teaching are among the biggest disadvantages in home schooling. Certified public school teachers take several courses on teaching methods, strategies, and learning disabilities. Heavy content area specific classes are taken as well.

Required Subjects

The basic home schooling curriculum, however, is similar in all US states. It includes math, science history, and English, and children will of course have to learn how to read and write. Parents whose children show aptitude for other subjects like music, writing, or art can include those if they wish. The parents will be required to maintain a daily log of their childrens’ lessons, and the children will be required to progress at least as quickly as their public school counterparts. But the specific rules for home schooling may very from state to state.

Tags: Home Schooling, school

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A Brief Introduction to Distance Learning

Posted in Distance Learning | October 6th, 2009

An introduction to distance learning requires first, an understanding of the concept itself. While various definitions exist for distance learning, it would be safe to say that distance learning is a mode of education in which the teacher and student are separated in time and place. The concept of distance learning has been around for ages in the history of mankind, albeit the use of the latest technology in the modern era has added fuel to the fire and given distance learning a boost.

Distance Learning Tools and Technology

Distance learning uses various means and methods to transmit course material and education to students, who could be distributed throughout various parts of the world. In an introduction to distance learning, we would be correct if we said that distance learning seeks to deliver the same traditional classroom experience to students sitting in their living rooms through non-classroom means. Today, distance learning uses various means like regular mail, high-tech tools like the internet and audio-video conferencing to help teachers correspond with students, and vice versa. Today, a host of synchronous and asynchronous tools are available for individuals who are involved in distance learning.

What are the Choices Available?

Distance learning courses are ideal for people who do not have the time or the means to pursue a fulltime college curriculum, but have the drive to study further. Distance learning includes undergraduate degrees, professional diplomas and Post Graduate Certificate courses for people willing to learn. From courses in liberal arts, humanities and social work, the gamut of distance learning encompasses courses in business management, technology, public health, law, medicine and accounting as well. To put it in a nutshell, distance learning has something to offer everyone, provided you have the inclination to learn.

Who is Offering Distance Learning?

Most reputed universities and colleges across the world are offering distance learning courses to students willing to learn further. The University of Phoenix Online has courses at both bachelor’s and master’s levels. The South University also offers undergraduate and advanced courses to students online. The Keller Graduate School of Management offers business degrees at a master’s level to students. The Independence University – California College of Health Sciences offers certificates and diplomas at associate, bachelor’s and masters levels in health education to people thus inclined.

This, in brief, has been an introduction to distance learning. With the latest technologies and tools the world has indeed become a smaller place, and the impact of the IT boom is reverberating in the distance education sector. Today it is possible for a student sitting in a remote corner of Asia, to pursue a Master’s degree from the Boston University, thanks to the internet.

Jim Zorn is web master of the Guide to Distance Learrning. Please visit to learn more about online colleges and universities, distance learning degrees, majors and courses offered. http://www.guide-to-distance-learning.com

Tags: Distance Learning, Education, Learning Education

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Vocational Guidance be a Subject of Study

Posted in Guidance | September 6th, 2009

If we go to the local Employment Exchange and see the candidates registering their names, we shall find that all those who are coming from schools and colleges do not know in which trade or occupation they should get their names registered. That is the reason most of the candidates coming from schools and universities are registered in ‘ General Vacancies’ which clearly means that they are not fit for a profession, trade or occupation and they need Vocational Guidance to choose one of the trade or occupation for them out of atleast 3000 professions, trades, callings and occupations already identified and recognised in India. The states have made certain arrangements in the employment exchanges where the freshers could get Vocational Guidance, but this guidance at this stage does not give right direction to the candidates. Time has come when the state must consider the case for Vocational Guidance as a subject after 8th class in all the schools and colleges so that the students could know something about the world of works available in their own country. They shall be given to understand about the occupations in which candidates are in short supply and they shall also know in which trade people are already surplus and no fresh candidates are required. The youths shall also be given information about their interest and aptitutes and about the occupations which can afford them with income as they desire.
At present there is no guidance programme in schools and colleges. Some teachers have been designated as Vocational Guidance Masters, but they do not get time and matgerials and therefore, they never give guidance to the youths nor they make available the materials to the youths. The states must take into consideration the present system and its shortcomings and they must have consultations with experts and see that Vocational Guidance be introduced as a subject of study after middle examination. The students shall be getting informatifon about all the professions, trades, callings and occupations in time and they shall be preparing themselves for one of such trade in which they shall be getting a job. They shall know about the subjects of study which they shall have to opt for a particular occupation and they shall be able to prepare themselves to have success in the enterance examinations. They shall also know about the total expenditure involved in the training and they shall also try to understand from which source they shall be arranging the money. There are institutions which are providing financial help to the youths at low rate of interest. All this information must be made available to the youths so that they could have alternatives with them . The present system is increasing the number of un-employed in this country and we should try to give right direction to our youths and this must be done at school and college level because giving Vocational Guidance after completing study shall not give right direction to our youths and there are chances that they shall go astray because long term unemployment is breeding frustration amongst our youths and most of them are turning drug addicts and criminals. We should ensure that everyone coming out of schools and colleges be at work before he complites twenty five years of his age or earlier if he has left the school earlier.

Tags: Education, Study, Vocational Guidance

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Career Colleges of America-career Education and Medical Schools

Posted in Career and Vocational | July 6th, 2009

Vocational nursing programs are offered at schools throughout Southern California. A career in nursing is still in high demand, both here and abroad. Nursing offers immense employment opportunities, as well as many financial and professional advantages. Through an accelerated program, a nursing student can become a licensed vocational nurse (LVS) in as little as 11 months.

As a vocational nursing schoolgraduate student you will be able to demonstrate competencies in direct patient-care activities and ethical, caring behaviors while providing nursing care. Often, graduates and active students in upper level vocational nursing classes are offered free review classes to help prepare for the NCLEX-PN exam. Upon passing this licensure exam, graduates may obtain employment as a licensed vocational nurse.

A California Licensed Vocational Nurse works in hospitals, both public and private, in nursing and convalescent homes, in medical clinics and for health service agencies, government agencies such as the Peace Corps, and in the military. Some are self-employed working through nursing agencies for private duty service.

The average licensed nurse in the U.S. earns between $43,370 and $63,360 a year-some even earn as much as $71,000 to $113,000 a year. Most nursing jobs come with good benefits as well, in addition to bonuses, family-friendly work schedules, and subsidized training. This is because there is a shortage of nurses, so employers will offer benefits to attract and retain more nurses on their staff.

Vocational nursing schools also offer training programs for other successful careers in the healthcare sector, such as surgical technology, pharmacy technician, diagnostic medical sonographer, and medical assistant training.

Career Colleges of America is a Southern California college that offers a vocational nursing program, as well as programs in medical assisting, paralegal, computerized accounting and more!

Tags: Career Colleges, Education, Medical Schools

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Long Distance Colleges and Universities

Posted in Colleges and Universities | June 6th, 2009

Due to the success of distance education, the number of long distance colleges and universities also has seen a huge rise in the recent past. Recent research too has shown that the number of students enrolled with distance learning programs will see a huge jump in the next decade. Today most educational institutions are realizing the importance of technology aided education, and are willing to start online versions of their on-campus programs. The trend which was pioneered by the University of Phoenix is now being followed by almost every educational institution.

It’s a Sea of Choices

Since most colleges want to broaden their student base, they couldn’t ask for a better way to do so than by throwing open their gates to students of their virtual classrooms. Today long distance colleges and universities are more open towards accepting non-traditional students into their fold. The United States Open University offers degrees in various subjects like Business, Psychology, Mathematics, Statistics, Arts, Languages, History and Information Technology amongst others. The Strayer University too has a presence online and aims at catering largely to working adults through its online programs. It has degrees in subjects like Acquisition and Contract Management, Internetworking Technology, Economics, Accounting, and Public Administration.

Other long distance colleges and universities include names like Capella University, Canyon College, Thomas Edison State College and California National University amongst others. Degrees are on offered at various levels, be it Associate, Bachelor’s or Master’s to cater to the varying needs of the student community. Though a large number of the online students’ population consists of adults, working or non-working, distance education caters to the fresh out of high school generation as well. Distance education is a great equalizer and it allows a uniform platform to people from various races, social backgrounds and nationalities to pursue their dreams of higher education further.

The Latest Technologies

Courses offered by long distance colleges and universities aim at providing the same educational environment to their online students as to their on-campus students. The latest technology is being employed by most of these colleges to deliver lectures, discussions and debates in real-time to students sitting far across the world. Today it is possible for a person living in Africa to pursue a degree with UCLA or the Boston University. Distance learning has been a blessing for all the people dreaming of higher education, but not finding the means to partake of it.

Jim Zorn is web master of the Guide to Distance Learning. Please visit to learn more about online colleges and universities, distance learning degrees, majors and courses offered. http://www.guide-to-distance-learning.com/index.html

Tags: Colleges and Universities, Long Distance Colleges, Universitie

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Global Education

Posted in global education | May 6th, 2009

The SAT is an aptitude test. Like all aptitude tests, it must choose a medium in which to measure intellectual ability. The SAT has chosen Math and English. Most of the aspirants for undergraduate studies to US need to take it. NEW SAT takes about 3 hours and 45 minutes. It contains Critical Reading, Math and Writing Section. The NEW SAT is about 2400 marks, English section is for 1600 marks while Math section is 800 marks. The writing section is measured on a scale of (0 to 6 points). SAT is offered 6 times a year in India you can register for the exam online on www.collegeboard.com. The present fees for SAT is around $ 85 USD, You will select a test day, pay with an international credit card and complete the transaction entirely online. SAT scores are valid for a period of 5 years.

About SAT SUBJECT TEST

SAT subject test where formerly known as SAT II, subject tests are given to access your skills in specific areas subjects include Math, History, Physical Science, Literature and SAT Subject Tests are given to assess your skills in specific areas. Subjects include math, history, physical sciences, literature, and foreign languages. SAT Subject Tests are an hour long and consist entirely of multiple-choice questions.
The score is from 800 marks. It is taken as per direction of universities for the choice of programs mentioned.

About Graduate Record Exam

Graduate Record Exam (GRE) is taken by students interested in pursuing their Masters program in US but renowned universities across the globe accept GRE scores. GRE is essentially a computer adaptive test which is about 2 hours and 30 minutes. It consists of Verbal, Quantitative and Analytical Writing. The scoring pattern of GRE is on Verbal (800), Math (800) and Analytical Writing section is graded on a scale of (0 to 6 points). GRE is offered all year around you can register for GRE on www.gre.org. You need to pay $160 USD for registration. GRE scores are valid for a period of 5 years.

About GRE subject test:
The GRE Subject Tests are intended to measure your knowledge of specific subject matter. Subject Tests are available in eight disciplines: Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology; Biology; Chemistry; Computer Science; Literature in English; Mathematics; Physics; and Psychology. These tests are given in paper-and-pencil format. These tests are given separately from the GRE General Test and require additional fees. Check with the universities to which you are applying to determine whether any of these extra tests are required.
About GMAT:
The Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT) is taken by students interested in pursuing MBA program in the US. It is also accepted by major business schools world wide. It consists of 3 sections (Quantitative, Verbal, and Writing). It is a 4 hour computer-adaptive test (CAT). Scoring pattern is on a scale of 800. GMAT is offered all year around you can register for GMAT on www.mba.org . You need to pay $250 USD for registration. GMAT scores are valid for a period of 5 years.

Importance of SAT, GRE, GMAT:

As the admission process gets tougher every year. It is mandatory for
the students to prepare sincerely for the above exams. The preparation
time for these exams extends from three months to six months. On a
broad spectrum the ETS board the governing body for the exam evaluates
students on their knowledge in Math and English from grade eight to
degree level, but individual stress is given on basic writing skills
as far as Analytical writing is concerned.

Do’s and Don’t for Exam preparation.

The do’s
1. Be realistic in your expectations.
2. Do take the writing Analytical section seriously.
3. Take practice test with the sole aim of improving your endurance and timing.
4. Take mock test as far as possible it acts as a dress rehearsal.
5. Practice alone makes you perfect.

The Don’t
1. Don’t be too confident about your test taking abilities.
2. Don’t focus only on particular testing areas at the cost of other sections.
3. Don’t be obsessed about scores during practice.
4. Don’t burn the mid night oil without a proper back up plan.

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Tags: Education, global education, Learning Education

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Landmark Education on Communication

Posted in Education, global education | April 6th, 2009

Everyone at some point has experienced an impasse in communication; those frustrating occasions when it all breaks down and people want to get up and walk out. Just look at a sample of recent headlines: “Peace Talks Breakdown” or “Labor Negotiations at a Stalemate” or “Negotiations Fail to Result in an Accord”. When the stakes are high and people are afraid they have something to loose communication becomes strained and people stop listening to one another. Usually this is while claiming that the people on the other side of the table are actually the ones who are not doing the listening. We get so concerned and fearful about getting other people to hear what we have to say, we become unwilling to hear what they have to say.

Indeed, listening seems sometimes as if it is a rare happening among human beings. We can’t really listen to another person speaking if we’re preoccupied, or if we’re trying to decide what we’re going to say when the other stops talking, or if we’re debating about whether what is being spoken is true or relevant or agreeable. Listening, in other words, is being accessible and open to what is being said.

At Landmark Education we contend that listening has an amazing power. It gives life to what is being spoken. You might even say it is with the listener that both the speaker and what is spoken exist and come alive. Think of how inspired and enlivened the elderly can become when you sit down and have an extended conversation with them. Think about what happens when someone is really listening to you. Ever notice that you become funnier and more playful when someone laughs at your jokes? What about when a child recognizes that adults are actually listening to them? Their whole demeanor shifts. In the programs of Landmark Education, you find yourself with a new ability to listen to others. You find yourself inspired by the people you have in your life. When you truly listen to people you discover the best of what they have to offer.

Speaking, meanwhile, can be something more than talking, more than the exchange of symbols or information, more than saying what you really think. In speaking we can share ourselves; we can evoke experience in others. Speaking is where our ideas become clear and possible. It is where others are expanded by our time spent with them. It allows for the futures we create. Speaking lives in poetry, in the appreciation of another, in idle conversations that pass the time, in great theories and books that give rise to wonder and thought.
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Speaking allows for “who” and “how” we “are” in the world. It is what gives voice to all that is possible in being human. In our ability to speak and share we have the ability to shape the world we live in.

In the courses of Landmark Education you find that true communication is creation. It has the power to shape, determine, and alter the course and quality of our lives. It moves people. It generates experience in others. It not only delivers information to others, it actually transforms their ability to hear. True communication transforms both the speaker and listener.

The Landmark Forum suggests that what it is to be human has its own domain and that domain is one of language—of communication, of conversation. Through communication —the realm of language, of conversation—each of us has complete access to ourselves, to others, to the very essence and possibility of what it means to be human.

This is the essence of what Landmark Education is about and what The Landmark Forum provides.

Tags: Education, global education

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Teaching Efl Pronunciation: Why, What and How?

Posted in Teaching | March 6th, 2009

Pronunciation is an integrated and integral part of second/foreign language learning since it directly affects learners’ communicative competence as well as performance to a substantial extent. Notwithstanding, the teaching of EFL pronunciation has received varied treatment from having no room in the synthetic syllabus and the grammar-translation method to being the cardinal focus in the situational syllabus and the audio-lingual method in which emphasis is put on the traditional notions of pronunciation, minimal pairs, drills and mini-conversations. And with the advent of communicative language teaching in the late 1960s (Richards and Rodgers, 1986), the role of pronunciation in the EFL curriculum started facing questions: whether the focus of the programmes and the instructional methods were effective or not. Teaching pronunciation until then was ‘viewed as meaningless non-communicative drill-and-exercise gambits’ (Morley, 1991: 485-6). However, with a shift from specific linguistic competencies to broader communicative competencies as goals for both the teacher and the learner (Morley, 1991), the need for the integration of pronunciation with oral communication is clearly realized.

Until very recently, the teaching of English as a foreign language in many territories of the world including Bangladesh would give primary emphasis on the reading and writing skills and secondary and/or little emphasis on listening and speaking skills. But, particularly in Bangladesh, since the introduction of communicative language teaching a few years back to different levels of education, especially primary, secondary and higher secondary levels where English is taught as a compulsory subject, the listening and speaking skills have started enjoying some sort of status alongside the reading and writing skills, although the former ones are neither seriously taught nor formally tested. That is, it is now evidently understood that the learner’s communicative competence as well as performance is dependent on his/her command of all the basic skills of the target language encompassing listening and speaking. Though pronunciation is overlooked in the syllabus, material and even classroom activities, it does have an inseparable link to communication through listening and speaking (Gilbert, 1984, Celce-Muria, 1987).

Both as a learner and a teacher-researcher of English as a foreign language, I am aware of the syllabuses, materials and classroom activities at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels in Bangladesh and in many other EFL settings as well, which unfortunately scarcely have any room for pronunciation teaching. Therefore, based on my experience and a number of existing studies in varied EFL settings, this paper examines and addresses four major issues concerning teaching EFL pronunciation to learners at different levels.

Firstly, I have explored and uncovered the reasons for overlooking teaching pronunciation.

Secondly, I have endeavoured to justify the teaching of pronunciation together with the other skills of the target language.

Thirdly, I have tried to ascertain a level or variety and the aspects of EFL pronunciation that should be taught.

Finally, I have discussed some pronunciation teaching approaches and advocated a variety of techniques/ activities for teaching EFL pronunciation in the classroom.

Why is EFL pronunciation teaching ignored?

Teaching English pronunciation is still surprisingly and shockingly neglected and/or ignored in many EFL settings including Bangladesh, although the listening and speaking skills are now somewhat included in the syllabus and taught to equip the learner with adequate communicative competence. At the primary, secondary and tertiary level in Bangladesh, an English pronunciation course or English pronunciation as a component in the English course is hardly given any considerable place at all. In China, an English phonetics course is simply left to chance or given no room (Cheng, 1998). As in Bangladesh, some teachers in Taiwan might argue that English pronunciation is not important at all, for very few tests would require students to show abilities related to pronunciation or speaking (Lin, Fan and Chen, 1995). Similarly, English pronunciation is arbitrarily overlooked in Thailand (Wei and Zhou, 2002). In Mexico, pronunciation is described as “the Cinderella of language teaching”; that means an often low level of emphasis is placed on this very important language skill (Dalton, 2002). It is then conspicuous that teaching EFL pronunciation has little room in the syllabus, material and classroom. But why?

Though very few studies are found to have been carried out to reveal the reasons for neglecting the teaching of EFL pronunciation, based on my experience as a learner as well as a teacher-researcher of English as a foreign language, I would endeavour to disclose the secrets of the peripheral position of EFL pronunciation.

Firstly, the absence or exclusion of EFL pronunciation from the curriculum/ syllabus is indicative of the fact that the curriculum/ syllabus designer has deliberately or ignorantly overlooked its significance. Hence, the curriculum/ syllabus designer’s qualifications, expertise and honesty could be seriously questioned.

Secondly, the locally produced materials and/or the imported overseas ones used to teach/ learn EFL do not usually embody pronunciation components and lessons. This indicates that the local materials developers are either unaware of the importance of pronunciation or not capable of designing pronunciation materials or just blindly confined to the syllabus devoid of pronunciation components. Besides, the overseas materials incorporating no pronunciation tips and lessons attract our teachers and others concerned because very many of them do not have any formal and adequate training in English phonetics and phonology as well as EFL pronunciation teaching.

Thirdly, as most teachers do not have useful strategies or techniques for teaching EFL pronunciation and as they do not know what strategies are appropriate when they meet a specific problem, they simply avoid pronunciation instruction in the classroom by employing shrewd tricks. Dalton (2002) rightly says:

We are comfortable teaching reading, writing, listening and to a degree, general oral skills, but when it comes to pronunciation we often lack the basic knowledge of articulatory phonetics (not difficult to acquire) to offer our students anything more than rudimentary (and often unhelpful) advice such as, ‘it sounds like this: uuuh.

Finally, it is a fact that a substantial number of persons (of course more than fifty percent in Bangladesh) currently working as English curriculum/ syllabus designers, materials developers, educators, classroom teachers and test writers/ question setters in EFL settings have either literature background or insufficient training in ELT and hence tactfully avoid and/or consciously exclude EFL pronunciation items from the syllabus, lessons from the material and instruction from the classroom activities.

Why should EFL pronunciation be taught?

The usefulness of teaching second/foreign language pronunciation is a widely debated issue in the language teaching world. Purcell and Suter (1980:286) hold that pronunciation practice in the class has little effect on the learner’s pronunciation skills and, moreover ‘that the attainment of accurate pronunciation in a second language is a matter substantially beyond the control of educators’. Contrariwise, Pennington (1989) questions the validity of Purcell and Suter’s findings, and states that there is no firm basis for asserting categorically that pronunciation is not teachable or it is not worth spending time on teaching pronunciation. However, Stern (1992: 112) maintains ‘there is no convincing empirical evidence which could help us sort out the various positions on the merits of pronunciation training’.

Nonetheless, pronunciation is definitely the biggest thing that people notice when a person is speaking. Let us look at an anecdote:

Whenever I spoke to a person in America, they kept asking me “What? What?”. I would repeat my sentence again and again. Finally they would say “Ah-ha!” and then say my sentence, using exactly my words! It was very humiliating. I knew my words and grammar were good, but nobody would understand me, just because of my pronunciation (Antimoon.com).

Hence, Gilbert (1995: 1) believes that the skills of listening comprehension and pronunciation are interdependent, and contends ‘if they (learners) cannot hear well, they are cut off from language. If they (learners) cannot be understood easily, they are cut off from conversation with native speakers.” Likewise, Nooteboom (1983) suggests that speech production is affected by speech perception, and stresses the need of pronunciation in both listening and speaking. Wong (1987) points out that even when the non-native speakers’ vocabulary and grammar are excellent, if their pronunciation falls below a certain threshold level, they are unable to communicate efficiently and effectively. Tench (1981:1) rightly maintains-

Pronunciation is not an optional extra for the language learner, any more than grammar, vocabulary or any other aspect of language is. If a learner’s general aim is to talk intelligibly to others in another language, a reasonable pronunciation in important.

Varonis and Gass (1982) examine the factors affecting listening comprehension in native speakers of English exposed to L2 accents, and conclude that grammar and pronunciation interact to influence intelligibility.

Moreover, Wong (1993) argues that the importance of pronunciation is even more distinct when the connection between pronunciation and listening comprehension is taken into account. Wong (1993) also demonstrates that a lack of knowledge of pronunciation could even affect learners’ reading and spelling. According to Baker (1992), pronunciation is very important and learners should pay close attention to pronunciation as early as possible. Otherwise, the result will be that advanced learners find that they can improve all aspects of their proficiency in English except their pronunciation, and mistakes which have been repeated for years are impossible to eradicate. Scarcella and Oxford (1994) similarly postulate that pronunciation should be taught in all second (/foreign) language classes through a variety of activities. With the emphasis on meaningful communication and Morley’s (1991: 488) premise, that ‘intelligible pronunciation is an essential component of communication competence’, teachers should include pronunciation in their courses and expect their learners to do well in them.

Therefore, we should countenance what Morley (1991) puts forward: The question is not whether pronunciation should be taught, but instead what should be taught in a pronunciation class and how it should be taught.

What should be taught?

The question ‘What should be taught?’ encompasses two different points: (a) the level, variety or accent of EFL pronunciation and (b) the aspects, components or features of EFL pronunciation.

The level, variety or accent of EFL pronunciation

It has long been believed and accepted that ESL/EFL learners have to try to get as close as possible in their pronunciation to one of the dominant native-speaker accents, such as Received Pronunciation (RP), the USA equivalent. However, the time covering the last fifteen years or so with the trend of globalization has brought about such a significant change in the role of the English language throughout the world that it is unavoidable to reexamine and rethink this situation. English is currently the world’s most widely used and principal international language, as a result of which there are now more exchanges between non-native speakers of English than between non-native speakers and native speakers. It is, moreover, predictable that in the near future at least this situation is not going to change in favour of the minority of native speakers, and so suddenly the hegemony of their specific accents is under fire (Walker, 2001). Macaulay (1988) and Crystal (1995) also question the idea of a native-speaker accent as a model or norm for ESL/EFL learners.

What accent of English should the learner be exposed to then? Kenworthy (1987) puts forward the concept of “comfortableintelligibility’ as a suitable goal for the majority of learners. Morley (1991: 496) supports Kenworthy’s view and advocates that the goal of pronunciation should be changed from the attainment of ‘perfect’ pronunciation to the more realistic goals of developing functional intelligibility, communicability, increased self-confidence, the development of speech monitoring abilities and speech modification strategies for use beyond the classroom. The overall aim of these goals is for the learner to develop awareness and monitoring skills that will allow learning opportunities outside the classroom environment. Robertson (2003:4) quotes Morley (1991) in saying that ‘intelligible pronunciation is an essential component of communicative competence’.

Influenced by both the strands stated above, I am in favour of both a dominant native-speaker ascent, such as BBC English or standard American accent and an intelligible accent, but in a practical, convenient and useful manner. I, of course, advocate an intelligible accent; but to acquire that the learner has to be exposed to appropriate and adequate input being constituted of a standard or dominant accent, for instance, the Queen’s English, or a locally produced variety like Indian Accent, never an amalgamation of two or more dominant accents. However, the ultimate target of both the teaching and the learning of EFL pronunciation would be an intelligible accent.

The aspects, components or features of EFL pronunciation

EFL pronunciation teaching should cover both the segmentals and the suprasegmentals as well as the training of the speech organs, such as lips, teeth, alveolar ridge, palate, tongue, vocal folds, ears, etc.

The segmentals embody vowel and consonant sounds, preferably phonemes, as well as syllables. A phoneme is a set of similar sounds showing meaning differences or differentiating between words. And a syllable consists of a vowel as a compulsory element and one or more consonants at the onset and/or in the termination as optional elements, which is pronounced with a single contraction of the lungs. The English language has twenty vowel phonemes (twelve monophthongs and eight diphthongs) and twenty four consonant phonemes. While the vowels are articulated without any obstacle in the vocal tract, the consonants are produced with some blockage of the air passage. The treatment of the segmentals basically includes sound contrast in words, pronunciation of vowel and consonant phonemes. The phonemes which are not available in the learner’s mother tongue and problematic to him/her should receive special treatment in the teaching material and methodology and sufficient room in the learner’s practice.

The suprasegmentals are comprised of stress in words and connected speech, rhythm, pitch, loudness, length, quality, tone and intonation that play an essential and natural role in English speech production and perception. As the Bengali speaking learner’s mother tongue is syllable timed whereas English is stress timed, he/she inevitably finds mastering EFL pronunciation a very daunting task (Bell, 1996). Hence, the differences in suprasegmentals between the learner’s mother tongue and the target language are momentous topics that he/she should not only be aware of but should make a conscious effort to study and focus on (Thompson and Gaddes, 2005).

Moreover, the learner should be helped to retrain his/her speech organs which have so long been trained naturally and used to articulate the sounds in his/her L1. This tremendously helps him/her to comfortably and sufficiently use his/her articulators so as to produce the sounds of the target language in an intelligible manner.

How can EFL pronunciation be taught?

The question ‘How can EFL pronunciation be taught?’ comprises axiomatic, procedural and implemetational issues related to pronunciation teaching: teaching approaches and classroom techniques/activities.

Teaching approaches

In recent years, with the renewed professional support to enable learners to be effective and efficient speakers of English as an L2, there has been an incessant progress to bring pronunciation back on stage since, as a large number of prominent theorists and researchers uncover, it should be given preferential treatment. However, researchers and teachers are not yet completely convinced of which models, goals, approaches and methodology are more helpful for leaning and teaching pronunciation alike.

To have a look at the various approaches to pronunciation teaching, the ‘bottom-up approach’ begins with the articulation of individual sounds or phonemes and works up towards stress, rhythm, tone and intonation. On the other hand, the ‘top-down approach’ starts with patterns of intonation and brings separate sounds or phonemes into sharper focus as and when required. According to Dalton and Seidlhofer (1994), the former is based on the idea that if the segmentals are taught first, the suprasegmentals will subsequently be acquired without the need of formal instruction whereas the latter rests on the assumption that once the suprasegmentals features are in place, the necessary segmental discriminations will follow accordingly. The bottom-up approach and the top-down approach respectively correspond to the traditional approach and the research-based approach propounded by Scarcella and Oxford (1994). While the traditional approach is concerned with isolated sounds and native like pronunciation, the research-based approach deals with suprasegmental features and targets at communication.

However, based on existing studies, the top-down or research approach appears to be more effective in teaching L2 pronunciation. Jenkins (2002) maintains that starting holistically from voice quality and then moving to work on segmentals imply that the learner is pushed to adapt and use the target language articulatory settings with their articulators still geared towards the pronunciation of the sounds of his/her mother tongue. That is, teaching EFL pronunciation should commence from the suprasegmentals that are more indispensable and contribute more to intelligibility and accent than segmentals do.

Classroom techniques/activities

Due to pedagogical reasons, it might be helpful to think about the teachability-learnability scale as introduced by Dalton and Seidlhofer (1994) which suggests that there are certain aspects of the English pronunciation which appear to be easily taught; namely, phonemes, stress while others, such as intonation, are extremely dependent on individual circumstances and thus practically impossible to separate out for direct teaching. Therefore, it could then be sensible to think that instead of pushing learners to strive for perfect pronunciation, a focus on pedagogic attention to those items which are teachable and learnable and also essential in terms of intelligible pronunciation appears to be a more reasonable goal. Based on the exploration and critical analysis of the different approaches to teaching pronunciation and what seems to be teachable and learnable for EFL classroom settings, I will now propose ten techniques and activities that, according to influential pronunciation researchers (e.g. Morley, 1991, Scarcella and Oxford, 1994, Fraser, 1999, Thompson, Taylor and Gray, 2001) and my own experience, appear to be useful for learners and teachers alike:

a. Utilization of known sounds: In the early stage of learning, the learner, especially the young one can be helped to compare the sounds of the target language with those of his/her mother tongue. This eventually helps the learner produce the EFL sound pattern to a considerable extent.

b. Explanation: Explanation of how to produce sounds or use pronunciation patterns appropriately should be kept to a minimum through directions about what to do with the vocal organs can help some young and adult EFL learners in some circumstances.

c. Communication activities: The teacher can design communicative tasks, such as dialogues or mini-conversations for both young and adult EFL learners according to their linguistic level to practise particular sounds, especially those which are not available in their mother tongue, for example, / I ?: f v ? ? ð/in case of Bengali speaking learners. Besides, the learner can be taught some useful communication strategies, such as retrieval strategies, rehearsal strategies, cover strategies which will help him/her give the impression that his/her pronunciation is better than it really is (Oxford, 2000).

d. Written versions of oral presentations: At the more advanced levels, learners can be given strategies for analyzing the written versions of their oral presentations. This helps them detect, identify and correct errors or mistakes committed in their oral presentations.

e. Modelling and individual correction: In this technique, the teacher reports the results of analyses of learner speech sample individually. The young or adult learner gets feedback from the analyses and stop repeating previous errors or mistakes.

f. Incorporation of novel elements: The instructor can add novel pronunciation elements, such as sounds, stress placement, tones to the old ones with the use of directions. This helps both the young and the adult learner get his/her EFL pronunciation further improved.

g. Tutorial sessions and self-study: Tutorial sessions commence with a diagnostic analysis of each learner’s spoken English, and an individualized programme is designed for each learner. This technique can be used for both young and adult learners

h. Self-monitoring and self-correction: Self-monitoring is the conscious action of listening to one’s own speech in order to find out errors and mistakes. This action is followed by self-correction standing for the process of fixing one’s errors and mistakes after they have occurred by repeating the word or phrase correctly. By teaching our adult learners to self-monitor and self-correct, we enable them to make their learning of EFL pronunciation more personal, more meaningful and more effective.

i. Computer-assisted language learning: Computer-assisted language learning or CALL can be an important tool when attempting to help the learner become more autonomous by allowing him/her to hear his/her own errors and mistakes and see both segmental and suprasegmental graphic representations. CALL benefits the learner by letting him/her study at his/her own pace in a semi-private environment as well as allowing him/her to build profiles that enable the teacher to monitor the learner’s improvement in EFL pronunciation. In addition, the teacher can exploit visual displays of speech patterns to teach intonation, stress and phonemes to individuals and small groups of learners. This tool can be used for both young and adult learners, but in an adjusted manner.

j. Reading aloud: The learner can be given a piece of spoken text to read out loudly. Here the teacher’s job is to identify pronunciation the errors and mistakes made by the learner, and then give feedback that will help the learner improve his/her EFL pronunciation.

Finally, these classroom techniques/activities for teaching EFL pronunciation are in no way exhaustive, but substantially useful when they are used on the basis of feasibility and suitability in a particular environment having particular learners. Moreover, according to Morley (1991: 507), the teacher can perform the role of a ‘speech coach’ or ‘pronunciation coach’ who, rather than just correcting the learner’s errors and mistakes, supplies information, gives models, offers cues, suggestions and constructive feedback about the performance, sets high standards, provides a wide variety of practice opportunities, and overall supports and encourages the learner.

Conclusion

It is evident that our teachers, syllabus designers, materials developers and policy makers consciously or indifferently avoid pronunciation teaching/learning because of diverse limitations indicating the lack of qualifications and expertise of the persons concerned.

However, EFL pronunciation should be viewed in the same light as the other facets and skills of the English language, such as vocabulary, grammar, reading, writing, and so on, since it is a crucial part of communication, especially through listening and speaking. Therefore, pronunciation components have to be incorporated in the materials, classroom activities and testing tools; and the teachers have to be trained in EFL pronunciation as well as EFL pronunciation teaching.

The teaching of EFL pronunciation has to aim at intelligible pronunciation considered as an essential component of communicative competence (Morley, 1991). And to help the learner acquire intelligible pronunciation, he/she can be exposed to a model, such as BBC English, Standard American English, or a locally produced variety like Indian Accent through some suitable and effective techniques/activities presented above.

References

Anecdote. Antimoon.com. Retrieved May 21, 2007 from http://www.antimoon.com/how/pronuncwhy.htm

Bell, M. (1996). Teaching pronunciation and intonation to EFL learners in Korea. Retrieved on 14 October, 2004, from http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/9583/PRONUN.html

Celce-Muria, M. (1987). Teaching pronunciation as communication. In J. Morley (Ed.), Current Perspectives on Pronunciation (pp.5-12). Washington, D. C.: TESOL.

Cheng, F. (1998). The Teaching of Pronunciation to Chinese Students of English. English Teaching Forum, Jan-Mar, 1998, 37-39.

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MA in English Language and PhD in Applied Linguistics & ELT, currently Associate Professor in the Department of English, Jahangirnagar University, interested in phonetics, phonology, syntax, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, teaching methodologies, syllabus/materials design, and testing, and published 41 books and papers.

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